The Environmental Afterlives of Sri Lanka’s Civil War
How Sri Lanka’s decades-long civil war lives on — in the soil, on the land, and within human and non-human animals.
Changing weather patterns have left those affected by war at most risk. Image: Eranga Jayawardena via the Guardian
On November 14th 2017, Kodeeswanan Vijithkanith, from Sri Lanka’s Northern Province, attended his father-in-law’s funeral. His father-in-law had been killed in a landmine blast on his land — land that the family had recently returned to after it was declared clear of explosive remnants of war. His father-in-law had been clearing vegetation and set a fire to dispose of the debris. A landmine was hidden amongst the debris and exploded in the fire.
Vijithkanith explained that, “The fragments hit him in the stomach, but it was clear he also damaged his lung. He was a large, broad man, so it came as quite a surprise that it killed him.” Now Vijithkanith fears working on the land, from which he and his family earn their livelihood.
It is clear the scars of the Sri Lankan civil war still run deep. The conflict — which lasted for more than 25 years, from July 1983 through to May 2009 — left thousands dead, injured and missing. Many continue to be impacted by the environmental consequences.
The most impacted areas are the Tamil-majority areas of North and East Sri Lanka. These areas remain among the most impoverished in the country, and have not seen the same post-conflict boost that other areas experienced. Most of the conflict took place in these areas, which were left damaged and contaminated, with lasting impacts on livelihoods and displacement.
Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)
One of the starkest legacies of the war, resulting in a multitude of environmental impacts, are the landmines, improvised explosive devices and other UXO, which littered the North and East.
The composition of the explosive weapons themselves — including, for example, heavy metals, fuels, lubricants, solvents and energetic materials such as RDX and TNT and propellants — can contaminate both soil and groundwater. Additionally, metal contamination from shrapnel, bullets and other debris makes clearance all the harder, a considerable problem in Sri Lanka.
Though much of the land has been cleared, 70 out of 650 mine fields remained uncleared in early 2018. 16,000 people are waiting for land to be cleared before they can return and rebuild their lives. Further civilians are waiting for the clearance of agricultural land; in the impacted areas of Sri Lanka, about 80% of communities rely upon agraricultural the land for their livelihoods.
The presence of UXO has left many displaced and without safe access to land for decades. In 2019, 23.3 million square meters were still in need of clearance. MAG International, the second largest demining operator in Sri Lanka, cleared 1.25 million square meters in 2019. It is unclear how much was cleared by other operators but completion could still be a few years away.
UXO resulted in more than 22,000 casualties by the end of 2016, and landmines and other UXO continue to pose a significant danger. It is even likely that many casualties have not even been recorded in recent years.
Researchers from Action on Armed Violence (AOAV), a London-based research organisation, met with Vijithkanith in December 2017. His father-in-law’s recent death was still a fresh memory. Many others in the impacted areas reported similar incidents, even on supposedly cleared land.
A Sri Lankan soldier displaying a mine in the northern town of Kokavil during a clearing operation in April 2011. Image: Ishara S. Kodikara via Yahoo News
Agricultural workers are often amongst the casualties of such blasts. Livestock have also been among the casualties, which also has a lasting impact on farmers. The month before AOAV met with HALO representatives in Kilinochchi, a cow in calf was killed in the Muhamalai minefield. This was a double loss for the farmer; the price of a pregnant cow is valued at 467,000 Sri Lankan rupees (about £2,185).
Agriculture and Landlessness
Beyond the harm from landmines and other UXO, the conflict itself destroyed crops and land. Many crops were destroyed by bombardment, with the scars of shrapnel still found on the trunks of trees in these areas. Others were destroyed strategically, including over 2.5 million palmyrah palm trees cut down to make bunkers and firewood. As one of the only tall trees that tend to grow in the North and East, the palmyrah tree not only provided a staple but also protects other plants, people, infrastructure and wildlife from strong winds, and contributes to drought resistance by helping to retain water in the soil.
In recent years, there have been further agricultural challenges stemming from droughts, floods and land subsidence. These, though, may be exacerbated by the impact of the conflict with the fighting, blasts, displacement, UXO and demining efforts all likely to have deteriorated soil quality and resistance to drought and other environmental circumstances. The conflict-impacted areas of the North and East are often amongst the areas worst impacted by drought, though other factors are also likely to influence this.
The agricultural impacts were also worsened by the military occupation of large amounts of land. One man from a military-occupied village told researchers: “All we want is our land back. With our land we could rebuild the community; we would have jobs and the ability to earn. We are put in this situation because we cannot access our own land. We now pay 100 rupees for a coconut when they grow by the thousands on our land.” Beyond the loss of land and income, the Civil Security Department (CSD) now running farms on the land also meant more competition for local farmers, driving down prices and profits and forcing some farmers into debt or landlessness.
Locals we interviewed also reported that the CSD’s recruitment of ex-cadres and other local Tamils into the organization also had psychological impacts. “Many, due to the conflict, do not want to wear the uniform with the army insignia,” one local organisation reported. “The uniform has psychological consequences; for some it causes depression to carry on wearing the symbols of what was their enemy and who in most cases killed loved ones and friends.” However, due to the levels of unemployment and poverty, they have no option.
However, thanks to a sustained campaign by Tamil civilians in the North and East, recently some lands “that bear no impact on national security needs” have been returned. While a significant step, this also requires efforts to ensure the livelihoods of those employed on these farms, and compensation to the owners for the loss of land in the occupied years. Nevertheless, some of the formerly Tamil land remains occupied, despite promises of return. Protests for land continue – those in Keppapilavu have been protesting for more than three years.
However, with the result of the 2019 elections and the return of the Rajapaksa brothers, it may be unlikely for Tamil civilians to have their land returned, particularly with “security” stated as the priority for the Rajapaksa brothers.
Wildlife and Biodiversity
The conflict also exacerbated land issues for non-humans. The clearance of forests and the fighting pushed various animals out of their typical habitats. Subsistence hunting by displaced human population was also reported to have had a serious impact on local wildlife. Landmines and UXO in conflict-impacted areas also killed and maimed elephants, an endangered species.
While such impact is rarely recorded in times of conflict, there was also some evidence to suggest that behavioural changes occurred in conflict-impacted areas. For example, in an elephant population in the Northwest, after the war it was observed that they only venture into open areas after dark.
Nevertheless, it appears that the greatest war-related impact for wildlife and biodiversity stemmed from the post-war development drive. In the years following the war, Sri Lanka’s government sought to reinvigorate the economy, which in many cases was prioritised above reconstruction in the worst-impacted areas or efforts to heal political and social divisions. Indeed, in some cases, such development exacerbated these divisions. As Sri Lanka’s government sought to increase economic development, particularly through tourism and transport infrastructure, more people were displaced. They were relocated into areas populated by elephants, leopards and other vulnerable species, resulting in significant habitat loss. The resulting conflict, between human and non-human animals, led to greater levels of deaths for both. 2016 saw one of the highest numbers of deaths from human-elephant conflict, with 279 elephant dead and 88 human.
Elephants and rural communities in Sri Lanka have been in conflict over resources and land. The number of elephant deaths reached a record high in 2019 when 361 died, most killed by people. Image: Nature Paradise-Sri Lanka (Blog)
In recent years, hakka patas (homemade explosive devices) have increasingly been used in hunting and “pest” control, particularly in areas rife with human and non-human animal conflict. Hakka patas are thought to be more convenient, effective and less traceable than guns. While the practice originated in areas in the North and East, also the regions most impacted by the civil war, their use has quickly spread. Experts we reached out to were typically quick to rule out any link between the use of hakka patas and the conflict. Malaka Kasun Abeywardana, a wildlife veterinary surgeon in Udawalawa, explained that: “it is a locally made explosive and not related to the conflict in [the] north and east… this is the major threat to wild elephants in the present”. Nevertheless, their use started in the penultimate year of Sri Lanka’s civil war and has gradually increased since then.
While it is not necessarily elephants that are the targets of such explosives, of the 319 elephant deaths in Sri Lanka in 2018, 64 were killed by these devices (53 from gunshots). In a country home to fewer than 6,000 Sri Lankan elephants, these explosives are having a major impact. When an elephant is injured by such a device, it is almost always fatal.
Conclusion
While the displacement of civilians saw nature thrive in some places, such impacts were short-lived. As the conflict destroyed habitats, human homes and livelihoods, all dependent on the land have suffered. The contamination from UXO has long-lasting consequences, especially in terms of soil quality, even when the devices are removed.
While the negative impact is clear, more research is necessary to understand the extent of the conflict’s harm on the environment, particularly on vegetation, wildlife and soil pollution. Nonetheless the consequences of such harm continue to plague the lives of human and non-human animals.
Jennifer Dathan is a consultant for Action on Armed Violence (AOAV) where she worked as a researcher for the last four years. She is also currently undertaking a PhD at Anglia Ruskin University.